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Hard mineral deposits that form in the kidneys - most commonly calcium oxalate - causing pain, blood in urine, and repeated episodes.
Kidney stones (nephrolithiasis) form when urine becomes supersaturated with minerals - calcium oxalate being the most common type, followed by calcium phosphate, uric acid, and struvite stones. Risk factors include low urine volume, high sodium and animal-protein intake, high oxalate foods, and metabolic conditions. Prevention centers on high fluid intake (target 2+ L urine/day), reduced sodium, moderate calcium at meals, and targeted measures for stone type. Stones can obstruct urine flow and injure kidneys if recurrent; evaluation often includes a 24-hour urine collection.
Abnormal presence of protein in the urine, a key marker of kidney damage and the strongest predictor of CKD progression and cardiovascular risk.
Blood calcium above the normal range - in CKD usually from over-suppressed PTH, excess calcium binders, or tertiary hyperparathyroidism.
Blood in the urine — visible (gross) or microscopic — with causes ranging from infection and stones to glomerulonephritis and malignancy.
A progressive condition characterized by gradual loss of kidney function over months or years, classified into 5 stages based on eGFR.
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